- Contested meanings of freedom at end of Civil War
- For southern blacks, an expansive quest
- Self-ownership
- Autonomous institutions
- Family
- Reuniting families separated under slavery
- Adopting separate gender roles
- Church
- Worship
- Social events
- Political meetings
- Schools
- Motivations
- Backgrounds of students and instructors
- Establishment of black colleges
- Family
- Political participation
- Right to vote
- Engagement in political events
- Land ownership
- For southern whites, an imperiled birthright
- Postwar demoralization
- Loss of life
- Destruction of property
- Draining of planters' wealth and privilege
- Psychic blow of emancipation
- Inability to accept
- Intolerance of black autonomy or equality
- Postwar demoralization
- For northern Republicans, 'free labor'
- Middle approach between aspirations of freedpeople and planters
- Ambiguous role of federal government; Freedmen's Bureau
- Achievements in education and health care
- Betrayal of commitment to land reform
- Post-emancipation labor systems
- Task system (rice)
- Wage labor (sugar)
- Sharecropping (cotton, tobacco)
- Subversion of independent white yeomanry
- Spread of indebtedness, dependence on cotton production
- Sharecropping and crop lien systems
- Urban growth
- For southern blacks, an expansive quest
- Presidential Reconstruction
- Andrew Johnson
- Background and character
- Humble origins
- 'Honest yeoman' identity
- Political career
- Hostility to southern secession and racial equality
- Approach to Reconstruction
- Pardons
- Reserving of political power to whites
- Background and character
- Southern white response
- Restoration of Confederate leaders and Old South elite
- Violence against freedpeople and northerners
- Black Codes
- Northern reaction
- Johnson satisfaction
- Republican outrage
- Republican goals and principles
- Moderate and Radical Republicans
- Equality of races before the law
- Federal enforcement
- Radical Republicans only
- Dissolution of Confederate-run state governments
- Enfranchisement of blacks
- Redistribution of land to former slaves
- Moderate and Radical Republicans
- Congressional Republicans vs. Johnson
- Passage of bill extending life of Freedmen's Bureau
- Passage of Civil Rights Bill
- Vetoes and override
- Fourteenth Amendment
- Terms and significance
- Approval by Congress, transmission to states
- Controversy in North
- Democrats vs. Republicans
- Congress vs. Johnson
- 1866 midterm election
- Bitter campaign
- Republican sweep
- Growing breach between Johnson and Republicans
- Andrew Johnson
- Radical Reconstruction
- Reconstruction Act
- Placement of South under federal military authority
- Call for new state governments, entailing black right to vote
- Tenure of Office Act
- Impeachment of Johnson
- Charges
- Acquittal
- 1868 presidential election
- Republican waving of 'bloody shirt'
- Democratic race-baiting
- Ulysses S. Grant victory
- Fifteenth Amendment
- Reconstruction Act
- Significance of 'Great Constitutional Revolution'
- Idea of national citizenry, equal before the law
- Expansion of citizenry to include blacks
- Empowerment of federal government to protect citizens' rights
- New boundaries of American citizenship
- Exclusion of Asian immigrants
- Exclusion of women
- Unfulfilled campaigns for women's emancipation
- Split within feminism over Reconstruction amendments
- Radical Reconstruction in the South
- Black initiatives
- Mass public gatherings
- Grassroots protests against segregation
- Labor strikes
- Political mobilization
- Forming of local Republican organizations
- Union League
- Voter registration
- Reconstructed state governments
- Composition
- Predominance of Republicans
- Black Republicans
- Officeholding at federal, state, and local levels
- Varied backgrounds
- White Republicans
- Carpetbaggers
- Scalawags
- Varied motivations of each
- Achievements
- Public education
- Affirmation of civil and political equality
- More equal allocation of public services and resources
- Measures to protect free labor
- Fairer system of justice
- Improvement in public facilities
- Shortcomings
- Uneven enforcement of laws
- Economic stagnation
- Persistence of black poverty
- Composition
- Black initiatives
- Overthrow of Reconstruction
- Southern white opposition
- Grievances expressed
- Corruption
- Incompetence
- High taxes
- Black supremacy
- Underlying motivations
- Antipathy for racial equality
- Desire for controllable labor
- Use of terror
- Against any perceived threat to white supremacy
- Against Republicans, black and white
- Ku Klux Klan and other secret societies
- Grievances expressed
- Northern response
- Measures to protect blacks' rights
- Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871
- Civil Rights Act of 1875
- Waning commitment to Reconstruction
- Liberal Republicans; Horace Greeley
- Resurgence of northern racism
- Economic depression
- Supreme Court decisions
- Slaughterhouse Cases
- U.S. v. Cruikshank
- Measures to protect blacks' rights
- Death throes of Reconstruction
- 1874 Democratic gains in South; 'Redeemers'
- Resurgence of terror
- Rise of electoral fraud
- Election of 1876 and Bargain of 1877
- Southern white opposition
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